How to use
Tools for Teaching

Positive Classroom Instruction

Chapter 12 - The Leadership Role

A staff development program that grows within a district must sell itself to a considerable degree by its own success with participating faculty serving as ambassadors. Yet, though much of the program support must come from the bottom up, the rest must be supplied from the top down by administrators and the school board. To the extent that administrators with the help of the school board perform their leadership role, wisely, growth and change will take hold and thrive. To the extent that the district leadership fails to grasp its role in creating and maintaining growth and change, any staff development program, no matter how well designed and implemented, will be seriously undermined and its impact limited.

THE FOCUS OF CHANGE AT THE SCHOOL SITE

One of the primary emphases of the preceding chapter was that deep and lasting change must not only reach the majority of teachers at a school site, but it must also involve those teachers in a lasting growth process that is supportive, instructional, and enjoyable. The school site is the primary functional unit of change in any school district because it is the primary social unit of any school district. Its members are physically close enough to each other to see each other on a regular basis, to share ideas readily, and to offer support on a daily and weekly basis. Since the school site is the social unit that will impact most directly on the teacher's daily life, the leader of the school site will therefore be the main facilitator or inhibitor of change.

The Importance of the Principal

Recent research has pinpointed the principal as the primary determiner of the success in any staff development effort at a given school site. Yet the principal is usually neither the one who disseminates the program directly nor the one who uses it within the classroom on a daily basis. The principal, however, determines the program's long-term life or death by the nature of his or her participation.

To understand why a principal has such power over the fate of staff development we must keep in mind two key factors.

1. Penetration and longevity. The short-term success of a staff development program may be determined by the relevance of its content, the charisma of the presenter, and the degree of skill mastery achieved during initial training, but the long-term success is measured in terms of penetration and longevity. Although principals may not determine the content, style, or methods of initial training, they do determine penetration and longevity to a large degree by the nature and extent of their ongoing support for change at the school site.
2. Change is not easy. On a good day 20 percent of the human race enjoys and seeks the stimulation of change, 30 percent are ambivalent, and 50 percent find it downright threatening and aversive. To bring the middle 30 percent, and ultimately the lower 50 percent, into involvement in a process of change, they must be actively and consistently affirmed and supported for their efforts and given extra help along the way. Affirmation and support for change that elevates a staff development program to a position of lasting prominence at a school site comes mainly from the principal.

It is the principal of the school site who is the gatekeeper for change since it is the principal who determines what is important and what is not important at the school site. From among the dozens of urgent imperatives coming at teachers from all directions - all the way from the national government to an upset parent - it is the principal who determines what is on the front burner and what is on the back burner. The rule of the stovetop states that things on the front burner get done, and things on the back burner do not.

Change must be kept on the front burner in clear sight for an extended period to achieve program penetration and longevity. Half the faculty is hoping that they will not have to participate in the program; and history has taught them that if they ignore the program long enough, it will dry up and blow away. School districts in general have compiled an abysmal record of staff development implementation and follow-through over the years. Teachers who find comfort in the status quo are banking on history to repeat itself. The less involved 50 percent of the faculty will simply keep a low profile until the initial enthusiasm blows over (which usually engages the chronically eager top 20 percent of the profession), and then they will chalk it all up to just another false alarm. The middle 30 percent of the faculty is the swing group that can be pulled into a good program or pulled by the bottom 50 percent away from a program that is not properly sold. Apart from introductory presentations by CNITP personnel and the "teachers' lounge effect," selling is largely the job of the principal.

When the principal is one of the bottom 50 percent, there is in effect a silent conspiracy of do-nothingness among the majority of professionals at the school site, which will also pull the middle 30 percent into business as usual. With change safely on the back burner, any staff development program will ultimately fall victim to limited volunteerism and the natural forces of atrophy. Consequently, innovation eventually dies of neglect at the school site-save for the top 20 percent.

Two Types of Principals

When it comes to enjoying change, principals are distributed pretty much like teachers and the rest of the human race-20 percent like it, 30 percent are ambivalent, and 50 percent find it aversive. The middle 30 are a swing group that can be pulled toward growth or nongrowth depending on the prevailing priorities of the district, and the bottom 50 percent need a lot of help. Yet regardless of which way the swing group swings, in the final analysis the principal is either part of the problem or part of the Solution, As regards staff development and institutional change, principals can be characterized as operating to various degrees in accordance with two contrasting styles: (1) instructional leaders and (2) plant managers.

Instructional Leaders One of the most useful descriptions of a leader is a person who maximizes the performance of everyone over whom he or she has direct responsibility. The leadership role of the principal would therefore tend to focus on facilitating teachers' job performance, professional growth, and morale. Thus, although principals may not be the direct agents of change in most cases, they must be expert to the extent that they are able to aid teachers in selecting growth objectives, and they must collaborate effectively in providing professional development opportunities. Above all, the principal as instructional leader is a process person whose role in professional development calls forth skills of communication, problem solving, team building, morale building, and quality control.

Communication, Problem Solving, and Team Building Only when administrators and teachers work together toward some overriding goal, which expresses shared values does problem solving become consistently constructive. At the beginning of systematic teacher training, such teamwork rarely exists at a school site and must, therefore, be built as a by-product of training. Team building occurs at many levels; it begins with the ironclad rule that training will never occur at a school site unless the administrators are trained as trainers right along with their selected faculty members. Although the faculty members carry most of the weight of program dissemination in the long run, it is vital that the rest of the faculty view their administrators as clearly committed, informed, and involved.

Team building progresses as 11 "continuation groups" are formed immediately following training. Each continuation group contains at least one trainer or "coach" to provide retraining and to guide group process, and the principal has a support role to carry out that is clearly structured.

Morale Building Morale building and professional development are far more intimately connected than is usually appreciated. A person's relationship to his or her career functions according to the laws that govern all relationships. Like a marital relationship, for example, a person's relationship to his or her career is either growing or dying. There is no lasting equilibrium or homeostasis because life always upsets equilibrium by presenting problems to be solved. You must constantly cope to stay even, and to cope you must solve problems and grow. To remain the same is to allow problems to grow unresolved until they finally assume overwhelming proportions. Unless you work at growing together, you finally grow apart; the relationship atrophies until it finally becomes a burden.

The methods of teaching are the teacher's craft, and it is through growing in the skills of one's craft that teachers keep their relationship with their profession alive. To fail to grow is to face the same classroom every day with the same subjects to teach in the same way. The dynamics of the profession is missing, and instead of the challenge of growing and the pride in getting better there is only repetition.

Antonio Stradivari built violins from his apprenticeship in adolescence until his death at the age of 93 (1644-1737). It is recorded that in his fifties he remarked that he was finally beginning to understand the woods. History tends to prove that statement accurate since his "Golden Period," so named because of the great number of masterpieces that were produced, spans the years 1700 to 1730 - from age 56 to 86. To one who does not understand the nature of craft, Stradivari would seem to have had a repetitive job indeed - one violin after another with an occasional cello for nearly 80 years. But one who understands the nature of craft also understands the challenge that keeps a craftsperson alive and growing. For an instrument maker no two pieces of wood are ever the same, and producing consistently excellent tone calls for constant variation in design and the utmost skill in execution. For a craftsperson such as Stradivari something about design is learned from each instrument, and coping with the perniciousness of each new piece of spruce or maple provides a constant challenge. These challenges kept the master alive and growing in his chosen craft for eight decades.

Teaching too is a craft that, in order to stay alive, must continually grow through the development of the skills of teaching, and the craftsperson must continually change to adapt to the needs of the raw material - the students. Professional growth provides the enduring yet eve-changing focus that is the natural antidote to boredom and spiritual burn-out. If teaching long division is primarily content rather than process, then boredom is foreordained since long division will be about the same from one decade to the next. But if creating learning and social maturation in students is our craft, then we can look forward to the continuing mastery of our craft for as long as we teach. Thus, good teachers are "process people" first and "content people" second.

The alternative to growing in one's chosen craft is the boredom, tedium, and negativism typical of most teachers' lounges. Such negativism feeds upon itself to produce a destructive cycle that can ultimately undermine morale and job performance at an entire school site. Grow or die is the imperative of all relationships.

Quality Control Principals have as part of their job quality control - the evaluation of strengths and weaknesses of teachers and the development of a professional growth plan for every teacher. A teacher-training program, however, can be viewed as a threat by teachers if the skills embodied in the program immediately become criteria of evaluation.

As mentioned in the preceding chapter, however, quality control and team building are linked through the vehicle of the continuation group. Continuation groups consistently place the principal in a supportive, nonexpert role in relation to meeting the special needs of the team and its team members. Most problem definition and problem solving occurs as part of a peer-based growth process, usually in the principal's absence. Sometimes, however, the principal may collaborate with the teachers who are experiencing special difficulties by helping them pinpoint areas of need and by allocating resources for whatever program of help is most advisable.

Principals, in summary, have two very different roles: (1) supporting excellence in the classroom and faculty morale on the one hand and (2) managing the plant. Helping to build instructional excellence at the school site is the process part of the principal's job which focuses on the relationship of teachers to their own careers and the relationships of teachers to each other. Insofar as principals are committed to and skillful at their process role, teachers will experience the continuing stimulation and renewal of a profession that is alive.

Yet not all principals are comfortable or skillful or even committed to looking after the process portion of their job. Indeed, many find the process role of the instructional leader foreign and uncomfortable. Often, therefore, principals find it preferable and in most districts relatively easy to retreat from the ever-changing role of the instructional leader to take comfort in the concrete and more easily manipulated tasks of managing the plant.

Plant Managers In lieu of professional growth there is little left but to manage the plant-to open it up in the morning and look after the details of keeping it running. I have an assistant superintendent friend, very savvy in staff development, who refers to most of his principals as "3B principals." The three B's are (1) beans (the cafeteria), (2) buses (transportation), and (3) budget. The three B's comprise most of the leadership role of the traditional principal, with crisis management and dealing with parents consuming the rest.

In schools run by 3B principals, teaching is clearly a profession practiced behind closed doors and so also is the principalship. Administrators and faculty often agree that this is the way things should be. The teachers run the classroom by themselves, and the principal runs the building while occasionally subduing outrageous students and keeping obnoxious parents at arm's length. Everyone goes their separate ways until they burn out.

The prototypical 3B principal is definitely not a "process person." His human relationship skills were often learned on either the drill field or the athletic field, and his capacity to put people at ease and to facilitate professional growth as a part of clinical supervision is equaled only by his familiarity with the positive helping interaction. Instituting change, therefore, tends not to be seen as a long-term growth endeavor, which is shared by teachers and administrators. Rather, change is typically seen as a product rather than a process - a matter of policy to be mandated. Leadership is viewed as dealing with concrete entities, such as keeping the plant running as smoothly as possible. Comfort with and tolerance for the ambiguity and open-endedness of the processes of relationship building and career building are typically quite limited.

A Shared Enterprise

Not too surprisingly principals who divorce themselves from the affairs of the classroom have a very different view of classroom management than do teachers and parents. For example, the 1982 "Fourteenth Annual Gallup Poll of Public Attitudes toward the Public Schools"' showed that school administrators see discipline problems as "absenteeism, vandalism, and similar problems," whereas parents, like teachers, see discipline problems as "obeying rules and regulations, classroom control, and respect for teachers. " Parents share the perspective of the teachers because their children live in the world of the classroom where discipline problems mean the moment-by-moment hassles that destroy both the teacher's patience and time on task. The principal's world is typically so divorced from the world of the teacher that to him discipline is all but synonymous with solving problems outside the classroom. Living in different worlds, teachers and administrators ultimately acquire viewpoints and concerns so distant and unrelated that communication about basic concerns becomes difficult if not impossible. Instead of experiencing support in their instructional efforts over the years, teachers often feel estrangement, which easily turns to alienation.

Research is increasingly showing that effective schools differ from ineffective schools primarily by having a shared way of doing things that is the result of a long-term collective focus by teachers and administrators alike on the instructional process. Research by Michael Rutter and Associates' in inner-city secondary schools of London with comparable populations, but with differing levels of student achievement, showed that success was primarily related to the "internal functioning" of the schools - to shared and agreed upon ways of doing things that were under the control of staff rather than "external realities." The most prominent differences centered around the "organization of school life" - factors as disparate as:

1. Teachers working together in groups to plan curriculum and deal with behavior problems
2. Teachers' work being observed by senior staff with ample feedback
3. Responsibility being stressed in class, with jobs and posts assigned to many Students and care of books and equipment stressed
4. Concern for students being expressed in many ways, from the frequency of outings to the flexibility of counseling
5. Emphasis on teaching and learning being ever-prominent through high expectations for exams, the assignment of homework, keeping careful records, and displaying students' work

In all these particulars, one gets a strong sense of coherence - of a faculty working together with clear goals, careful planning, and coordination of effort. The sense one gets from the less successful schools is that of drift - of a group of teachers without instructional leadership in which everyone goes his or her own way with no rallying or focusing force.

When the principal assumes the role of instructional leader, operating a school becomes a shared enterprise. The principal provides the organizational coherence to promote everyone's pulling together in a common direction.

All too often, however, teachers and principals go their separate ways. To our detriment, our professional training programs prepare us to go our separate ways with degree programs and credentialing procedures which provide little overlap in skills and concerns between administrator and teacher. Excellence, in contrast, results from a shared sense of purpose that comes from teaching as part of a team rather than alone. Excellence develops as principal and teachers join forces.

DISTRICTS THAT GROW

The Superintendent's Role

Some districts are designed for professional growth, but most are not. Whether professional development exists as a basic priority for a district can usually be gleaned from a quick inspection of its organizational chart. Where are the personnel to carry out systematic, long-term staff development? If you cannot see them on the organizational chart, then staff development is probably "nobody's baby" and receives little emphasis from management.

Districts vary greatly in their understanding of the process of professional growth, change, and renewal. Most districts, however, have never experienced a systematic and sustained teacher-training program with any built-in quality control or follow through. In most districts there is literally no mechanism by which systematic staff development can be implemented should the desire arise.

The Superintendent Sets the Priority Perhaps the most clear-cut characteristic of a school district that sets high staff development goals and achieves them is clear and consistent leadership from the superintendent. The superintendent defines the criteria by which the job performance of assistant superintendents and principals will be evaluated. But perhaps more important, the superintendent sets the priorities and professional tone of the district. If superintendents are preoccupied with budgets and politics and personnel matters to the exclusion of instructional excellence, then they convey a plant-manager mentality to all district personnel. If, however, the achievement of instructional excellence and the establishment of a staff development mechanism by which to achieve excellence is ever-prominent within the district, then staff development may live and thrive.

Districts with a strong, in-house staff development program typically have people at the top - at the superintendent and assistant superintendent levels - who are highly knowledgeable about the means and ends of staff development and who are thoroughly committed to implementation. They then amass the budget and staff to implement quality training while bringing the principals along gradually with the teachers. Over time a staff development institute or teacher center of some type evolves with fulltime, highly trained leaders who direct and coordinate the efforts of teachers training teachers in many specialty areas.

When sophistication at the top is missing, clout is missing and staff development goes perpetually begging. Enthusiastic principals, of course, can do much for their school sites through their own personal leadership aided by the failure of other principals to actively compete for staff development funds. But the district as a whole goes nowhere.

Districts that are going nowhere in staff development tend to develop a management perspective over time that actively thwarts growth and change. If most of the principals are plant managers and if the superintendent is the head plant manager, then management soon becomes a good ol' boys' club. Change does not live because there is no ongoing process which focuses on the practice of teaching. Consequently, change is seen in only the most concrete of terms - adopting a new curriculum or text, responding to a state or federal mandate, raising funds for a new building, or negotiating a new contract. Teachers' needs are responded to with quick, cheap, in-service presentations that are rarely coordinated toward any long-term goal.

The Mandate Mentality If you do not know how to create change, you mandate it. Mandates are the prime example of seeking to produce a product without a process - of decision making without laying the groundwork for implementation. Mandates, in fact, actively undermine implementation by separating policy formation from policy implementation. Rather than viewing leadership as a process of team building in which the people who are to carry out the policy are enfranchised in the development of the policy, the mandate mentality views leadership as solely responsible for policy formation.

Having to be right all the time by devising correct policy isolated from the input of those closest to implementation in the field is a stressful, impossible, and unnecessary burden. But it is not as difficult as trying to get a bunch of people to implement a policy that they don't give a damn about. The fruit of disenfranchisement is alienation. The people in the field lack commitment to mandates, and the leader then resents the apathy and resistance of the subordinates. It is the prototypical top down leadership of a plant manager. To say that such a leader does not understand how to create either (1) the skills to execute the plan or (2) the desire to execute the plan is an exercise in understatement.

Naive superintendents and their subordinates tend to deal with change by relying on mandates and policy directives. And, predictably, they tend to become frustrated when policies are "screwed up" or simply not carried out. Like any teacher who teaches poorly, these administrators lay the blame on the learner. When superintendents teach by mandate, the teachers who are supposed to change are often viewed as either stupid or unmotivated like any poor student. Now the fact that teacher and administrator live in separate worlds on so many levels finally bears its full fruit - open antagonism.

The mandate mentality is concordant with, and even requires, the viral theory of learning. In lieu of a common enterprise of growing in the profession of teaching along with one's staff, plant managers must disseminate as best they know how. For internal policy there are announcements and bulletins, and for professional development there are one-shot presentations.

Ultimately we must come to realize that lasting change is a result of process and method. You can mandate compliance, but you cannot mandate excellence. Ultimately learning and personal growth on a large scale are the result of an insistence by district leadership on proper teaching and careful follow through. Effective leadership, indeed, is inseparable from the production of organizational growth and change. The leader who produces the most change in the desired direction with the highest morale leads best.

A History of Frustration Unfortunately, many administrators who may have wished to achieve educational excellence over the years have been blocked by the sheer lack of programs which could deliver. Thus, both they and their teachers have often been stymied in developing a plan for professional growth that could succeed.

Until administrators have at their disposal a program that really works, they are powerless to deliver convincing results and, not surprisingly, to get the financial backing of the school board. Thus, in most cases both the teachers and their administrators must at some point become jointly sold on the merits of a particular program and experience short-term success before long-term commitments can be made. In a successful staff development effort, everyone typically grows together over a period of time. Although some superintendents have seen what quality staff development can do and are committed to it in advance, most superintendents and their school boards will proceed cautiously and skeptically.

The School Board's Role

A Statement of Purpose One of the characteristics of well-run and successful corporations both at home and abroad is a clear-cut and prominent value system that continually reminds all personnel of the overriding goals and objectives of the organization.' Such a statement of purpose is more than a collection of platitudes, for it sets clear priorities in production and personnel matters that shape decision making at all levels. It provides the basics that people go back to when decision making seems blocked or at loggerheads between conflicting viewpoints.

In high-tech industries there tends to be an overriding concern for the development of the skills of the individual and the health of the work group as necessary preconditions to corporate success. This is not surprising in a sector of industry that thrives on creativity, teamwork, and up-to-the-minute knowledge of the field.

Since the means to excellence are clearly people rather than machines, these corporate statements of purpose are documents which reflect the organization's understanding of staff development. An example from the Hewlett-Packard Company is most enlightening - especially its emphasis on participation in "continuing programs of training and education" as the first fundamental requirement toward fulfilling its corporate objectives.

Teaching, too, is a rapidly emerging hi-tech profession. Its methods are increasingly based on both a solid empirical foundation and an advanced understanding of professional practice that is a quantum leap beyond the folklore of the past that led the public to view classroom teaching as little more than glorified parenting. This book attempts to accelerate this metamorphosis of teaching from common sense as perceived by the general public to full professional status.

Every school district needs to reassess its accustomed goals and practices in this time of rapid change to see if they are helping to create a new and better future for teaching or are, instead, simply echoing the past. Is there even a coherent statement of purpose? If so, does it deal with platitudes about what we want for our children, or is it a practical document that defines the form of the interrelatedness of the adults in the organization? The district payroll is made up of adults, not children, and as in a marriage, until the adults get their relationship functioning constructively, the children will be perpetually deprived.

The Basic Policy

There is one school policy which must be clearly affirmed by the school board in order to give the superintendent a strong hand in facilitating staff development throughout the organization. This basic policy, which I refer to as "the professional development imperative," states that:

"Professional growth is a basic and fundamental part of professional life. In order to stay alive and vital within the profession of teaching, all teachers need to be continually working on some focused goal of professional enrichment and development. Without such a focus and without such an effort, the practice of one's profession becomes routine and sterile and goes stale over a period of years.

All teachers within the school district will have a personal goal or objective for professional growth which is selected and defined in conjunction with their school site principal. The school board and the administration arc obligated to provide resources to allow teachers to actively pursue their professional development goals."

This policy, like the broader statement of purpose, is as much a statement of values and priorities as it is a statement of procedure. It clearly affirms up front that teachers must be learners - that we are all students. If we do not live the learning that we try to sell to kids, will they not see through our hypocrisy by the time they reach the age of reason? All who participate in this profession must be continually reminded of one simple notion: There is no credential that says growth is no longer necessary.

The Deficit Model of Staff Development When defining professional development as a natural part of school life, the school board at the very beginning opts out of a "deficit model" of staff development. A deficit model of staff development views staff development as remedial, something needed by a teacher who is having a problem. Such a deficit model of staff development so stigmatizes the process of staff development that personal pride and professional respectability almost require everyone to claim that they do not need it.

Structuring the Role of the Instructional Leader Having sidestepped the issue of whether or not any individual needs staff development, the board places in the superintendent's hands the leverage to require every principal to define as major aspects of their job: (1) consultation with their teachers concerning the selection of staff development goals and (2) the organization of resources so that teachers have an opportunity to progress toward their goals.

Thus the "professional development imperative" kicks down the chain of command so that the job description of school site administrators is defined to a significant degree in terms of their active participation in professional development. Until the job of the principal is defined in terms of professional development, staff development programs will always be an add-on obligation which will be seen by many as interfering with their real job, which is to manage the plant.

Building the Foundation for Collaboration The message from the top down that staff development is basic to professional life typically produces a sympathetic response from most teachers. Teachers know that they need to select a professional development goal, and they have to specify what they want. They will also have a reason to take their choice of goals seriously since the professional development imperative implies the allocation of resources.

The principal will be asking the teachers, "What do you want to do with your money?" The teachers on the other hand will say to the principals, "I have some money coming. These are the things I want to do." The administration is thus placed in the role of the benevolent dispenser of resources, whereas the teacher is placed in the role of the adult responsible for using those resources. Unless, however, the school board puts enough money behind the professional development imperative to provide quality professional growth opportunities, its policy is nothing but claptrap - another mandate with nothing backing it up. With adequate resources, the school board, along with county, state, and federal agencies, is literally putting its money where its mouth is: creating an opportunity for excellence rather than a hollow mandate.

THE ADDICTION TO FADS AND THE QUICK FIX

Systematic teacher training is a slow, gradual process that focuses on the careful development of professional skills of teachers and administrators alike. It uses proper teaching methods, and it creates a supportive interpersonal network in which growth and change are nurtured over time. It focuses consistently on process and method and is preoccupied with quality control, productivity, and morale both during training and at the school site thereafter.

Fast Results

Administrators and school boards who do not understand the process by which lasting change is created within an institution often see the investment of the time and resources required for lasting change to be exorbitant and unjustifiable. If the objectives of the training program are not appreciated, then the expense provides the reason for not proceeding. But if the objectives of the program are partially appreciated, an even more alarming prospect rears its head-the strong desire for fast results. The first type of administrator or school board may ignore a program to death; the second type may implement it to death.

With wide-eyed enthusiasm, a high-level administrator newly converted to a staff development program may say, "Let's train all our high school teachers this year" or "Let's go countywide! " Although closure has been reached as to the content of change desired, we still have a long way to go with process.

How can you go countywide with a quality trainer-of-trainers program this year? How can such large numbers be reached so fast if we are carefully training people rather than simply "exposing" them? We are still confronted with the viral theory of learning. "We'll really turn this district around!" can be the battle cry to oblivion.

Once a program is embraced at the content level, the next problem is to make sure it is embraced at the process level. Although the first objective of dissemination requires getting teachers and administrators to want specific instructional methods in their schools, the second objective of dissemination is to get administrators to take the process of change seriously. When administrators experience a rush of enthusiasm over the improvement promised by a quality staff development program, it is necessary to repeat the following advice over and over:

• Slow down.
• Think small.
• Build gradually.

Quality does not come with a rush. It is built incrementally with a large investment in training quality people as trainers before dissemination to other staff is even possible. Quick quality on a large scale is an illusion.

The importance of implementing a worthwhile program properly is put into focus by one simple fact regarding program dissemination: You get only one chance. Once teachers have been through a program, as far as they are concerned, they have "done it." You will rarely get them back again to do it right if you did it sloppily the first time.

Shifting Focus

A concomitant of our tendency to embrace innovation as fad and to approach change as a quick fix is our tendency to shift focus frequently so that change efforts are robbed of adequate follow through. Educators are not used to making 5-year plans for staff development. A 2-year commitment is usually about all that the imagination will allow. A long-term, systematic approach to staff development is still a novelty in most districts, and a long-term commitment to a specific program and a specific consultant can be downright frightening. In addition to fears that the consultant may be a turkey, questions also arise as to whether the district wants to focus on any particular method to such a great extent.

Indeed, when change is carried out properly, you must choose your change objectives carefully because you will be living with them for a long time. And when energy is invested in real change, there will not be enough energy for many change programs. In general a school site can invest in only one major change effort at a time in addition to the normal change of curriculum and class assignments. If training is to be carried out properly, we can no longer employ a scattergun approach to staff development. We must choose our programs and our objectives carefully and maintain a coherent vector over time.

Actually the reduction of choices inherent in careful training is more a helpful antidote to fragmentation than a real limitation. There are really only about five major dimensions of staff development in education: (1) classroom management skills and the development of school standards, (2) instructional methodology, (3) communication, problem-solving, and counseling skills, (4) curriculum, and (5) leadership and quality control. There is no end point for professional development in any one of these areas (add a sixth if you like). Rather, it is more useful to think of staff development as a continuous process in which teachers and administrators cycle through one of the five areas each year always reentering an area at a higher level than before. Thus a district with a strong staff development apparatus would constantly be operating programs in all five areas at several levels on an ongoing basis. Obviously, some high level, in-house expertise is required to operate such a focused and multidimensional staff development enterprise. For most districts, it requires considerable growth and maximum effort to do just one program well.

Business As Usual

Some of the strongest built-in forces which can undermine quality staff development at the school district, county, state or national levels are the forces of political necessity. Politically oriented leaders typically need to show splashy results in order to enhance their leadership positions. In politics the best results tend to be the quickest results.

The best way to illustrate the workings of political expedience at cross-purposes with staff development may be to give some concrete examples. Each of the following vignettes is not only true but rather frequently true.

An Election Coming Up I received a call from a university professor colleague familiar with my program; he said he had been approached by the State Department of Education to develop a staff development program for school discipline that would be disseminated throughout the state. My colleague was told that there would be a lot of support for training in school discipline coming from the State Department of Education and that the State Superintendent of Education was going to earmark special funds for the training.

Although such a message might sound like a staff development specialist's dream come true, I have learned to be cautious. I told my colleague to get as many specifics as possible on (1) the time frame for training, (2) the dissemination network, and (3) political pressures which might be operating at the state level.

In a week my colleague called back and, speaking with far less enthusiasm than the week before, described the picture. It seems that the State Superintendent of Education was an elected position in this state, and elections were one year away. A recent poll financed by the State Department of Education pinpointed school discipline as the number one concern of the citizens regarding education. The state superintendent had decided to run for reelection and had decided to make school discipline one of his major platform issues. He therefore wanted to put together a "very visible program" on school discipline that would have statewide impact the year before the election.

The State Department of Education had already put out a fair amount of publicity to the press regarding their discipline program, but the specifics were hard to find. The reason, of course, was that people in the state department did not know a great deal about school discipline, had not had time to paste together a curriculum, and had no dissemination network for skill development on a statewide basis. Preliminary plans, however, targeted ten large school districts (those with the most voters) to receive state funds to carry out a trainer-of-trainers program to help local districts deal with problems of school discipline.

When pressed further by my colleague the head of professional development at the state level said that they hoped to put together a curriculum in the next few months and to use State Department of Education employees to travel out to the school districts to put on the workshops. The workshops were to be of 1 or 2 days duration aimed at administrators and department heads. These people were then to take the information (no mention of skills) from the workshop back to their local school sites.

After nearly two decades of staff development, my reaction to the preceding scenario is that it's the instant replay of a bad dream. "Quick and visible" are the real objectives of yet another ill-conceived in-service program designed not so much to produce actual staff development as to show a constituency that "we are doing something"' As usual, a curriculum was to be slapped together in a short time, and the notion of mass dissemination through a "trainer-of-trainers program" overlooked the necessity of carefully training the trainers, using the skills in real classrooms, supervising the process of training, supervising the trainees after training, and setting up a support or continuation program at each school site. It was viral teaching on a statewide basis - another glorified, warmed-over, one-day wonder.

No Backing from the Top The most common dilemma of a staff development specialist attempting to implement a quality training program is the lack of support from the top until the program is a demonstrated success. At that point the support is typically verbal with a showy display in front of the school board as business in the district proceeds in its typical fashion.

I have developed over the years a criterion for estimating the depth, breadth, and longevity of a staff development effort within a school district. When I first visit the school district, if I get on the plane to leave without having spoken at length with the superintendent about long-term staff development goals and methods, we are in trouble. Surprisingly often, superintendents are thoroughly unavailable for such discussions.

I will provide a composite case history of a "limited success" to give you the flavor. I'm contacted by a director of staff development (whose title includes a half-dozen other responsibilities) who has heard about my work at a conference. I am to speak on a district " in-service day." The head of staff development is the only woman assistant superintendent in the district-newly appointed and having very little clout-or a teacher on special assignment having no clout. She is, however, extremely competent and savvy about instruction and staff development, having been in the classroom for many years. During my visit to the district there is very little conversation about staff development initiated by any of the other administrators, but the director of staff development and I swap ideas like crazy over lunch.

After the presentation there are teachers pounding down the doors of their respective principals wanting training. A dozen principals are then on the phone to the director of staff development wanting to know what happened. Of those twelve principals, four are happy that there is a good staff development program available whereas the other eight are annoyed at having their lives disrupted.

The assistant superintendent in charge of staff development goes to the superintendent for money to carry out a trainer-of-trainers program at the school sites of the four interested principals. She is immediately turned down, but the superintendent and board agree to reconsider when they are deluged with requests from teachers and after several fired-up teachers give a testimonial and a brief demonstration in front of the school board. Who can say no to a roomful of teachers who want a professional development opportunity - particularly when they won't leave until they get it?

The trainer-of-trainers program proceeds over the following months until the coaches and the first round of trainees are trained. Word reaches the top that the new trainees are highly enthusiastic, as are the trainers, and plans are made for an additional round of training at the participating school sites. So far, so good.

The missing element in this scenario is involvement from the top. The superintendent does not come to the training, the other assistant superintendents do not come to the training, nor do principals from school sites not involved. The teachers at four school sites and their administrators are not connected to a district network in which innovation and enthusiasm spread, because there is no network. Nor is staff development a district priority. After all the rave reviews are in, I finally get the meeting with the superintendent that I have been lobbying for, and I do my best to explain what I know about making staff development work.

On the way to the airport I am told that the superintendent will probably not ask for any money because, of course, there isn't any money and he does not want to upset the board. The superintendent, in fact, was very clear about there not being any money during our earlier conversation. On the way to the airport I am also told, however, that the district has decided to build a new field house for the high school, which was passed unanimously at the last board meeting on a voice vote without discussion.

Implementing the Program to Death After having given a workshop for stall' development specialists in an eastern state, I was contacted by the staff development people from a particular county who were lobbying to get the county interested in the Classroom Management Training Program. They also demonstrated some of the classroom management skills at a school board meeting in order to rally support. The superintendent liked what he saw, but in order to get the money from the school board for the training program, he promised the board rashly that everyone in the county would be trained during the following year.

It seems as though each district must learn about quality staff development while experiencing it for the first time regardless of what is said in advance. Only when we had trained the first round of trainers and the first round of trainees and only after I had had several long conferences with the various levels of administrators did it finally dawn on people that the process was slow and methodical and could not possibly reach every teacher in the county during the next year. Various compromises in the program were suggested by the top administrators and rejected by me since I knew and explained why each such compromise would eventually produce failure.

Nevertheless, attempts were made during the following year to have coaches train teachers from different school sites only to have many of the continuation groups falter due to lack of leadership within the building. A year later we regrouped and the county decided that the program was worth doing and they would do it right because they could now see that tampering with the structure of the program was causing it to produce results that were noticeably inferior to the school sites in which the program had been properly implemented.

We have now been working together for over three years and we are now back on track, but there is still a problem of speed. We have trained the junior high teachers and have started with the senior high teachers. The senior high principals who were not initially included in the program are impatient, and the elementary school principals feel left out. The county wants to speed up the process, but they hate to spend any more money. Is there any way we can change the program to train more teachers quicker? Sounds familiar.

The Money's Gone I was asked by a school district to give an introductory talk on their staff development day. The enthusiasm was high among the teachers, but at dinner afterward the administrators told me that they had already spent this year's staff development funds, and the state would probably cut all such funds for next year.

"What did you do in staff development this year?" I inquired.

"We conducted a needs assessment," they said.

"How was it done?" I asked, ever curious about such things.

"We hired a consulting firm to come in and conduct a formal survey, tabulate the results, and prepare a formal report."

"What did they find?"

"Well, the main concerns according to the teachers were classroom discipline, time on task, and the noise and mess in the halls, cafeteria, and playground with several teachers mentioning burn-out."

"No kidding." I responded, trying to stifle my amazement. "How much did you spend for the needs assessment?"

"Twelve thousand."

"What do you plan to do with it?"

"Nothing. We're out of money."

"Why did you do it? Every needs assessment in the country in the last 10 years has said almost the same thing."

"We know. But you can't get state or federal money without first showing thorough documentation of a needs assessment. We did that part, but we didn't get the grant. So now we're high and dry."

"How about using your own money?"

"Are you kidding?"

I was at another district which had recently spent $30,000 to hire a consulting firm to do it "trouble-shooting report" on problems at the administrative level. The report, which took 6 months to prepare and included in-depth interviews with key personnel at all levels of management, focused on deep-seated problems of communication and morale. It seems that administrators and program coordinators at all levels felt powerless and disenfranchised from policy development, and they felt that many policies were not practical and did not meet their needs.

"What is the district going to do about it?" I asked.

"The superintendent is going to announce his policy next week."

"What about all the people who feel powerless?"

"I understand the new policy will address that."

"Were they involved in the development of the new policy?"

"Not to my knowledge."

"Any money for staff development?"

"Are you kidding?"

Look Out for the Counties I gave a workshop for the personnel of a nearby county office of education in which their staff development people were in attendance and taking notes. We talked enthusiastically afterward about working together with several of the districts in the county that were looking for help with discipline.

Within the year, however, the county's funds were cut by the state. As usual, staff development was regarded as a particularly expendable area. So much for our plans.

Several months ago I heard that the county office was offering its school districts a discipline program patterned after the work of Fred Jones. I inquired among some friends in the county and found out that indeed the few county staff development people who were left on the payroll were offering such a workshop; it covered "the eyeball technique" (limit-setting, I suppose) and "the stopwatch technique" (which can get rather weird out of context). I asked what form the dissemination was taking, and I was told that it was a half-day workshop at various school sites held usually during the afternoon of a minimum day.

A friend, who is a lawyer, said on hearing about it, "You ought to sue!" I felt that that was a rather self-serving remark for a lawyer to make.

I replied, "Sue for what, using my name indirectly? Listen, my book will be out soon, and all kinds of people will be doing the same thing. You can't sue people for being naive and foolish. There's no law against it."

County offices of education, as well as states and large cities, are particularly vulnerable to pressures from above to water down a trendy innovation and parade it around the territory. It shows how "with it" the county office is and how eager they are to serve. As for proper training and lasting change - well . . .

Parading Innovation

Short-Term Gain The pressures to go quickly and cut costs are built into the implementation of any staff development program. The tendency to water down programs is particularly strong among educators because of their general inexperience concerning the implementation of a successful professional development effort. These pressures are compounded by the short-term political gain to administrators for parading innovation.

Converting innovation into deep and lasting change may turn heads slowly, but it does not cause necks to snap. It takes a lot of time and effort, with the major investment up front. Parading innovation, in contrast, is flashy and creates publicity. Yet parading innovation, and the watering down of training that inevitably accompanies it, is the prime killer of innovation since innovation poorly implemented never works.

Is It Over Yet? One of the strange and final ironies of implementing a quality staff development program within a district is the tendency for administrators and board members to think of all staff development programs as time-limited rather than as continuing. They keep asking, "When will it be over?" or "How much longer do we have to fund this program?"

I attempt to explain to the district that staff development must be a permanent part of professional life. It is the job of the consultant to train people within the district to the point where they can be relatively self-sufficient: able to continue the staff development effort without a constant dependence on, and need to pay, an outside consultant. Good consultants should, therefore, systematically work themselves out of a job.

But, though there may not be a continuing need to pay the consultant, there is a continuing need to pay. There is no such thing as free staff development because time is money. The objective is to eventually pay your own people and own the program.

In my naivete I keep expecting someone to say, "Let's set up a timetable for achieving autonomous functioning so that our present level of support for the program can be directed toward enhancing the salaries of our own people instead of your salary. " I keep explaining this objective to people, but it always comes as unsettling news. And after I think I've gotten my point across, someone again says, "You know, the board is wondering how much longer we are going to have to support this thing." It reminds me of the middle-of-the-roaders in the typical classroom who keep asking, "Am I done yet?"

Until staff development is understood as a process, I suppose it will just be regarded as a transitory expense. As long as it is regarded as an expense, frugal board members will constantly be attempting to terminate the process. As long as the public and their representatives on the school boards regard teaching as a "job slot" rather than as a profession, professional development will always be an uphill battle.

A LESSON FROM QUALITY CONTROL CIRCLES

Educators often imagine that things are different in the world of business where there is a bottom line and where people are forced to do things efficiently and effectively in order to survive. Such fantasies ignore the highly publicized realities of the bottom line-that productivity in American industry is sagging right along with profits, a decline which is followed closely by loss of morale. It is of no small interest to me, therefore, to observe the process by which American industry attempts to change, grow, and incorporate innovation in this time of stress. One innovation which is generating the most enthusiasm throughout all sectors of industry and which is entirely process-oriented is the "quality control circle" (QC circle) - the so-called secret ingredient of Japanese productivity and product quality.

Quality control circles are working groups of two to ten people within an organization with a common job who share a vested interest in solving problems in production, quality control, and morale. Most QC circles on the shop floor meet 1 or 2 hours per week and are led by a foreman, but the process has now spread through all levels of management. The QC circle membership considers various problems needing attention which are proposed by group members, and the group then selects a limited number of problems to be the object of systematic study by the group over a 3- to 6-month period. Problem solution then leads to suggestions for change in any relevant aspect of production. The average QC circle in Japan produces fifty to sixty implemented suggestions per worker per year.

QC circles have particular relevance to me because (1) they closely resemble the continuation groups developed by CMTP as a vehicle for ongoing growth and quality control, and (2) like continuation groups quality control circles require extensive training on the part of members for the group to function effectively in solving problems. In particular, QC circles represent the process side of business-the investment in increasing the relatively intangible value of the human resources of the corporation. The implementation of QC circles, therefore, serves as a clear test of the methodological sophistication of American industrial management in staff development.

I spoke recently with a former student and colleague of mine who works for a Chicago-based industrial consulting firm, and I asked him what his clients were currently doing with quality control circles. He replied, "Oh. I think that has already peaked and is on the way down. People wanted results, and executives are already beginning to complain that they have not realized the benefits that they had projected for the program. They seem to think that any group of workers called together by management is a quality control circle."

My friend's observation of QC circles as an American industrial fad viewed by management as the latest wonder cure is reinforced by a recent statement by W. Edwards Deming, the widely recognized "father of the quality control circle." Dr. Deming stated, "Quality circles only work if management does its job. There are thousands of them in the United States, many because management can't do its job and hopes someone else can!"

The investment in staff development that management must make to produce successful quality control circles is outlined by Dr. William Ouchi in his best-selling book Theory Z. Dr. Ouchi stressed that the average Japanese employee receives approximately 500 days of training during his or her first 10 years of employment - a monumental investment in staff development. This training focuses on all aspects of job performance as well as statistical techniques for analyzing data collected by the group and interpersonal skills and values which make one a productive member of a problem solving team. The real difference between American and Japanese management, according to Dr. Ouchi, is the determination of the Japanese to invest in teaching these techniques to production-line employees and then to delegate to them the power and authority to influence the way things are done. The real focus of managerial leadership in Japan is the development of the human side of the organization.

In particular, stressed Dr. Ouchi, QC circles cannot be implemented by fiat. Rather, management must create positive conditions and then have the patience to allow effort and morale to grow naturally. QC circles work only if middle and upper management understand the conditions for success and actively support them over time.

It would seem that American management, whether in the public or private sector, is afflicted by an orientation toward the human side of the organization which is shortsighted and simplistic. Our culture for some reason transmits a set of values, expectations, and skills that favor quick cures based on policy rather than people. We have an intolerance for the kind of change which must be bought at the price of slow, process-oriented, long-term professional development. We tend to believe in the spread of change mandated from the top down by management and implemented from the bottom up by people who have been disenfranchised from policy development; change supported somehow magically by morale that has never been fostered and effected by expertise that has never been built. Whether in the private sector, the public sector, or in politics, it is fad upon fad, quick cure upon quick cure, and disillusionment upon disillusionment. Trapped in our "mandate mentality," we chronically fall victim to our own naivete and impatience.

OVERVIEW

Having presented classroom management as a coherent and humane system which bridges both discipline (Positive Classroom Discipline) and instruction (Positive Classroom Instruction), I am left with one haunting fear. I worry that the whole effort may die from "exposure." "Positive classroom discipline" and "positive classroom instruction" have grown and matured in the field as a by-product not only of systematic research and observation but also of experience with the Classroom Management Training Program. This is a program of staff development in which skills are imparted to teachers carefully using the teaching methods described in Positive Classroom Instruction. Having trained teachers to use these techniques in all kinds of regular and special educational settings, I know how powerful they are in the hands of well-trained teachers. And, since the Classroom Management Training Program is a trainer-of-trainers program, I have seen many teachers other than myself consistently produce mastery and self-confidence in their colleagues. Success, therefore, must be regarded as a by-product of method rather than personality. But I have also seen untrained teachers try to use these methods, and I know how botched and pathetic these techniques can be in the hands of an untrained teacher.

When learned poorly, any technique can fail - even in the hands of an otherwise competent individual. When a technique fails for a teacher in front of a classroom full of students, it is quickly relegated to the trash can with the lame but customary assessment that the method "just doesn't work for me." Indeed, skills have a nasty habit of not working for anybody who has not mastered them.

Unless skills are taught well in the first place with careful coaching and practice, followed by retraining, sharing, problem-solving, and support from a healthy support network, the only outcome of any teacher training program will be transitory success at best and failure at worst. Failure then produces disillusionment and cynicism toward the skills, the methods of dissemination, and staff development in general. Innovation of all kinds is killed by improper dissemination, and teachers are left the poorer for their cynicism than they would have been without training.

Within education, teacher training has traditionally exemplified the worst possible teaching methods. At college, students typically receive methods courses via lecture with little modeling and no structured or guided practice. Once on the job, teachers are typically introduced to innovations through either one-shot in-service workshops or quickie seminars. Such exposure is a setup for failure and disillusionment because skill mastery does not come from exposure.

In teacher training and staff development, therefore, method or process is to an extent more important than content. A dated or less than optimal method well taught and well implemented will produce more good than the state of the art poorly taught. At the most concrete level, teachers learn more about teaching from the methods used to teach them than from the content of the presentation. There is no reason to expect better methods from teachers in the field than those which were used to train them. Success, therefore, is ultimately governed by the sophistication of the delivery system. The sophistication of the delivery system must match the sophistication of the methods being disseminated or all is for nothing.

Yet experience has taught me to be optimistic. The technology exists for dramatic improvement in classroom instruction and student achievement. And the technology exists for training teachers and for bringing even a cynical faculty into a process of growth and renewal. Sophistication within the education community concerning the need for, and the methods of, successful teacher training is growing rapidly. I have seen the future, and it looks much better than the past. In my work I see most of the "insolvable" problems of education routinely overcome by well-trained teachers and administrators working together.

REFERENCES

1. Mirga, T., and White, E. Poll finds rising concern about school finance. Education Week, September 1, 1982, 12-13.
2. Rutter, M.. Maughan, B., Mortimore, P., Ouston, J., and Smith, A. Fifteen thousand hours, secondary schools and their effects on children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.\
3. Deming, Edward D. In Car and Driver, October 1981, 29.
4. Ouchi, William G. Theory Z. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1981.